The current global climate change results in shift and shrinkage of ranges of crop cultivation. The potential of crop wild relatives as an important source of genetic diversity for breeding is underestimated. Wild relatives of pea include the species P. fulvum and the subspecies P. sativum subsp. elatius, whereas wild representatives of P. abyssinicum are unknown. Wild peas are characterized by spontaneous dehiscence of pods and ballistic seed spread. The cultivated pea represents just a phyletic lineage within P. sativum. Pea crop wild relatives are promising with respect to: (1) resistance to pests and pathogens; (2) resistance to abiotic stress; (3) nutritional value; (4) agrotechnical advantages, e.g. branching, ability of hibernation etc.; (5) symbiotic nitrogen fixation (almost no data); etc. P. fulvum is resistant to pea weevil, rust, powdery mildew and ascochyta blight. Some P. sativum subsp. elatius are resistant to nematodes, broomrape, powdery mildew, Fusarium wilt, powdery mildew, root rot, ascochyta blight and white wilt. P. sativum subsp. elatius responds to weevil oviposition by neoplastic pustules of the pod wall controlled by the locus Np. Pisum abyssinicum shows resistance to nematodes and bacterial blight. P. fulvum has a high rate of root growth. Some P. sativum subsp. elatius accessions have lowered transpiration rates, and an accession from Italy survives at –20оС. Analyses of quantitative trait loci have been carried out for resistance of P. fulvum to pea weevil, powdery mildew and rust and for resistance of P. sativum subsp. elatius to broomrape, bacterial blight and ascochyta blight. Aryamanesh et al. (2012) obtained five introgression lines with pea weevil resistance transferred from P. fulvum to P. sativum. The practical use of wild peas is hampered by insufficient awareness of their diversity and differences from cultivated peas. Studies of useful traits of wild peas and their natural diversity, which is rapidly vanishing, should be intensified. 

Presently, the use of bread wheat introgression lines resistant to pathogens in practical breeding
is hampered by the lack of their cytogenetic characteristics, data on the genetic control of disease resistance, and influence of alien genetic material on grain productivity and quality. For the solution of these problems, two wheat–Aegilops speltoides lines, L195 and L200, developed at ARISER and resistant to leaf and stem rusts were studied. These lines were produced by crossing of spring bread wheat cultivars to line L26b-4. Cytogenetic analysis of the lines involved C-banding, meiotic analyses, and FISH with pAs1 and Fat. It allowed the rust resistance genes, efficient against both rust types, to be mapped to a 2D-2S translocation in both lines. Genetic analysis revealed tight linkage of leaf rust resistance genes from Ae. speltoides to gametocidal genes and absence of susceptible plants from the F2 hybrids and subsequent generations. Exceptions were found only in hybrid combinations with lines L2032 and L583: occasional susceptible plants were noted  in the F2 and subsequent generations. Evaluation of lines L195 and L200 revealed high resistance to Ug99 + Lr24 (TTKST) and a local Saratov population of stem rust. The prebreeding studies of lines L195 and L200 showed their benefits in breeding for grain productivity in comparison with the recipient cultivar L503 and good bread-making quality. Due to the complex of agronomical traits and high resistance to leaf and stem rusts, lines L195 and L200 can be considered promising donors for commercial bread wheat breeding. 

To improve biotic and abiotic stress tolerance in common wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), novel genotypes with genomic fragments introgressed from other cereal species are extensively developed. One of the most important abiotic environmental factors that impede the expansion of wheat cultivation areas is soil salinity. Salt-sensitive wheat varieties have poor yield and impaired grain quality when exposed to salinity. The aim of this study was to evaluate
the degree of influence of alien genetic material on salinity tolerance in common wheat seedlings. Seedlings of introgression lines carrying single fragments of Aegilops speltoides and T. timopheevii genomes in common wheat chromosomes 2А, 5В, and 6В, were tested for salt tolerance. The parental common spring wheat genotypes Saratovskaya 29, Novosibirskaya 29 and Rodina-1, possessing mode- rate salt tolerance, were used as reference. The expe- riment showed that the presence of the translocation T5BS • 5BL-5SL either in Novosibirskaya 29 or in Rodina-1 increased salt tolerance. On the contrary, another translocation between T. aestivum and Ae. speltoides (T6BS • 6BL-6SL) made wheat more sensitive to salinity. Different fragments of T. timo- pheevii genome had different effects: introgression into the chromosome 2A increased salt tolerance, whereas introgression into chromosome 5B reduced it significantly. The observed differences between
the parental wheat genotypes and the introgression lines derived from them are discussed with regard to the locations of alien introgression fragments in the lines tested and the map positions of known wheat QTLs and major genes related to salt tolerance. It is assumed that a locus yet undescribed that affects wheat salt tolerance is located distal to the Xgwm0604 marker on the long arm of chromosome 5B. 

Differentiation in the duration of growing period is an inherent and, in many respects, decisive factor
of task-oriented formation of the cultivar pool in the region. The cause is that one cannot develop
a universal cultivar that would be equally effective in utilization of environmental resources and equally responsive to precipitation at different stages of plant growth, to temperature backgrounds, and to the hot wind pattern. That is why the aim of the research is to find ways to extend the range of parameters of the durum wheat growth season in the Middle Volga region. Experiment were conducted to study effects of Vrn genes (1, 2) on the structure and duration of the growth season. Chief parameters of integral production processes were determined with regard to earliness of ripening. The formation of yield components and parameters of the growth season were tested in the Harman’s system of principal components in the context of cultivar adaptivity.
The experiments showed that
(1) The diversity of durum wheat in the earliness of ripening in the Middle Volga region was determined by pre- dominance of genetic systems other than the system of Vrn genes.
(2) Mid-ripening and mid-late genotypes had higher productivity potentials compared to early- ripening ones. In the climatic conditions of the Middle Volga region, it was due to the production of a large foliage surface and photosynthetic potential.
(3) The duration of the emergence–heading time span was greatly influenced by the cultivar–air temperature interaction. Opposite responses were recorded in varieties of different ecological and geographic origins, and this should be taken into account in breeding programs.
(4) The strongest correlation of yield components and duration of the growth season was observed in groups of non-adapted genotypes.
(5) The variation limits of the durum wheat growth season in the Middle Volga region can be extended mainly owing to late-ripening components of cultivar pools. 

The results of two-year research (2013–2014) of the variability of plant height in spring common wheat hybrid forms (F4, F5) in three geographical localities, including Russia (Tyumen region) and Germany (Baden-Württemberg and Lower Saxony), which differ considerably in soil and climatic conditions, are presented. These three localities also differ in temperature and availability of water during the growing seasons of spring wheat. Differences between the geographical points in water supply and aridity during two growing seasons (2013–2014) were assessed on the basis of G.T. Selyaninov’s hydrothermal coefficient (HTS). The height of plants of different hybrids showed different responses to differences in environmental factors. Hybrids demonstrated a moderate degree of height variability (CV = 11–25 %). Hybrid forms characterized by the largest range in plant height within a locality were identified. The morphotypes of the hybrids were presented by undersized and moderately sized plants. It was found that hybrids formed higher plants under conditions of sufficient moisture. The contributions of the major factors (point, year, a genotype) to the formation of the height of plants were investigated by three-way analysis of variance. The results of this analysis demonstrated that the environmental conditions were responsible for the largest proportion of the explained variation of the variable under study (plant height). Two hybrid forms ( Hybrid × Lutescens 70 and Cara × Skent 3) with the least expressed variation in plant height and the highest lodging resistance were identified. Height of plants is considered one of the indicators characterizing the environmental plasticity of genotypes under different soil and climatic conditions. 

The problem of the immunity of winter barley varieties to smut diseases is still urgent in the agricultural practice. The first varieties bred by PBGI – NCSCI (Ukraine) that possessed complex disease resistance to smut diseases were Zimovyi (2005), Dostoinyi, Trudivnyk, Selena Star, and Aborihen (2006). They were followed by Akademichnyi, Aivenho (2012), Burevii (2013), Snigova koroleva (2014), and Deviatyi val (2015). They were all developed with the participation of donors s.i. 13664 and Dzhau Kabutak; however, the nature of the group resistance remained insuffi- ciently studied. The objectives of this work were the study of the topical problem of smut diseases in winter barley in Southern Ukraine, elucidation of the nature of group resistance to false loose smut and covered smut species in the donors s.і. 13664 and Dzhau Kabutak, and development of new highly productive breeding material resistant to smut diseases. According to the results of this study it was found that the yield loss caused by the direct and hidden losses depending on the level of susceptibility- resistance of the variety could be as large as 44,1 %. The study revealed a monogenic dominant control of the resistance to false loose smut and covered smut species. The proportion of recombinants in the F2 generation of a double analyzing cross varied from 5,1 to 9,5 %. Our opinion is that there was an incomplete linkage of the inheritance of resistance genes. When developing resistant breeding material we tested an integrated approach combining several principles. In doing this, we tried the following method: natural infection with local populations of false loose smut (Ustilago nigra) and covered smut (Ustilago hordei) against artificial background (in the field) followed by the test (invasive) assessment of the variety samples at the stage of competitive variety trial. 

The objectives of this research are: (1) to find genetic material associated with high growth rate
and maximum size of root system, (2) to study polymorphism of rice varieties for markers
connected with genes defining effective utilization of phosphorus, (3) to estimate the possibility of using listed SSR markers for introgression of previously mapped genes, and (4) to classify donor accessions found in the Russian gene pool into groups according to the probability of stability formation by various genetic mechanisms. Traits determining the rate of phosphorus uptake by rice varieties and their inheritance are discussed. Polymorphism of 72 rice accessions of Russian and foreign breeding by the rate of the formation of the root system and its size at maturity is considered. The highest rates of root system formation are found in varieties Liman, Arborio, Dalnevostochnyi, Selenio, Oceano, Atlant, Musa, Fontan, Cerere, Sharm, Serpentine, Khankaiskii 52, Leader, Boyarin, and Druzhnyi. Russian varieties outperform Italian ones in growth rate. Root weights at the maturation stage varied from 1,5 to 4,5 grams. Varieties Carnise, Rapan, Onix and G-57 display the greatest root weights at the maturation stage. Root lengths at the maturation stage varied from 17 to 26 cm. Varieties D 25-2, G 75-5, Ryzhik, G-52, Krepysh, and Snezhinka had the maximum values. Study of polymorphism of Russian and foreign varieties on the markers associated with the genes determining uptake of phosphorus has revealed polymorphism for all markers; thus, marker-assisted selection can be applied to them in breeding for this trait. The maximum number of alleles is noted for the RM 247 marker, located on chromosome 12. 

Cleaved Amplified Polymorphic Sequences (CAPS) markers are applicable in a wide range of tasks

in plant biology. They have been developed for plant genetics and breeding and become especially useful. This mini-review analyzes information about the application of CAPS markers within the past

3–5 years. In the presented study, special attention is focused on CAPS markers linked with genes controlling important agricultural traits in different crops. The main principles of the development

and analysis of CAPS markers, as well as advantages and disadvantages of this type of molecular markers, are briefly outlined in the beginning of this review. CAPS markers are based on PCR amplification of DNA fragments with specific primers followed by digestion with restriction enzymes and separation of the products in agarose gel. Functional CAPS markers can be developed on the known sequence of a gene of interest for the analyses of its structure, function, expression, and regulation. CAPS closely linked to the gene of interest are especially helpful for Marker-Assisted Selection, and they are widely used in the breeding of wheat, barley, soybean, potato, tomato, and other crops for tolerance to various pathogens. CAPS markers are often used for the preparation of genetic maps and fine mapping of studied genes. For some plants, first moleculargenetic maps were prepared using CAPS. This method was also successfully used for the mapping of both individual genes and QTLs controlling such important traits as plant growth habit, grain quality, and tolerance to pathogens in cereals, as well as the shape of tomato fruit. CAPS have important applications in the analyses of genetic polymorphism and phylogeny, particularly, in closely related species. Thus, CAPS are an effective tool for molecular-genetic research and plant breeding. 

The inter-breed crossing (crossbreeding) permits one to introduce new alleles, extend genetic diversity, and achieve desired phenotypic characteristics of initial breeds. On the other hand, crossbreeding may cause a decrease in genetic differentiation of indigenous breeds due to loss of the part of their unique allele pool. The objective of the present work was to investigate the effect of crossbreeding on the allele pool variability of Russian Black and White cattle by using 10 microsatellite loci (BM1818, BM2113, ETH10, ETH225, TGLA122, TGLA126, TGLA227, ILST005, ETH185, and ILST006).
The study was performed with purebred pedigree bulls of the Russian Black and White breed (BW_PB, n = 14) and two groups of their crosses with Holsteins carrying 25,0–62,5 % (BW_KR1, n = 16) and less than 12,5 % of the Black and White gene pool (BW_KR2, n = 67). Purebred Holstein bulls (HOLST, n = 42) were used as a reference group. It was found that the increase in Holstein’s blood could lead to the observed decrease in genetic diversity evaluated by the average number of effective alleles per loci (from 4,59 ± 0,46 to 3,87 ± 0,53), by the value of the Shannon index (from 1,60 ± 0,13 to 1,46 ± 0,14) and by the observed heterozygosity degree (from 0,779 ± 0,053 to 0,687 ± 0,055). It is shown that crossbreeding with Holsteins increases the genetic similarity to HOLST: Fst = 0,058, 0,036, and 0,026; Rst = 0,088, 0,060, and 0,050; DNei = 0,306, 0,178, and 0,123 for BW_PB, BW_KR1, and BW_KR2, respectively. Decrease in the genetic difference between the Black and White breed and Holsteins due to crossbreeding is confirmed by cluster analysis. Thus, evaluation of the allele pool and the level of genetic variability in populations are necessary for the efficient management of farm animal genetic recourses. 

The formation of behavior type in the postnatal development of sables is studied insufficiently. Studies of this hot topic showed that the anthropogenic factor has a great influence on behavior formation in sables. Identification of other components that can influence the formation of sable behavior of sables in relation to a human is of obvious interest. The objectives of our work were: (1) variation of behavior type in pups with age and (2) correlation of behavior with pup sex and coloration, litter size, and origin of parents. A total of 262 pups were tested. Part of their parents belonged to animals, thoroughbred for coloration («black sable» breed), whose selection had been conducted in farms for 40 years. Other parents originated from sables caught in 1990s in Kamchatka and the Urals (mongrels). The type of behavior was determined by the standard hand test. Animals avoiding contact were scored zero. Animals communicating with the experimenter and demonstrating calm behavior (friendly response) were scored +1 to +5. Animals that demonstrated aggressive behavior (fearful response) were scored –1 to –4. Tests of the same animals were repeated at ages of 4, 5, and 6 months. In the final test at 6 months, 78,6 % of pups of both sexes showed the avoidance response, 20,2 % were attributed to the calm type, and 1,2 % to aggressive. The experi- ment proved that the formation of behavioral reactions in young sables was influenced by the sex of animals. The calm response was more frequently demonstrated by males than by females (p > 0,99–0,999). Behavior type in young sables showed no association with age, but the proportion of calm animals increased in each successive test (differences statistically insignificant,
p < 0,90). No statistically significant correlation could be found between coloration and tame behavior of pups because of small numbers of such animals. Litter size or parent breed did not affect the formation of behavior type in pups. 

Glucocorticoid hormones (cortisol in humans and corticosterone in rodents) are secreted in discrete pulses during a day with a periodicityof approximately 1 h (ultradian rhythm), and this pattern is also maintained in plasma and extracellular fluid. However, the vast majority of studies on gene regulation by glucocorticoids typically assess gene responses regardless the ultradian rhythm. These experiments are usually performed using long-term stimulation with synthetic hormones (dexamethasone and triamcinolone), which form much more stable complexes with glucocorticoid receptor (GR) then natural hormones. This review summarizes the current scarce information, obtained in experiments mimicking the ultradian mode of natural hormone secretion in cultured cells and in animal models.
The results of these experiments clearly demonstrate that ultradian stimulation by natural hormones induces rapid GR exchange with glucocorticoid response elements and leads to cyclic GR mediated transcriptional regulation (gene pulsing) at the level of nascent RNA. In contrast, synthetic glucocorticoids, having much higher receptor affinity, fail to disengage from nuclear receptors with sufficient speed to support the ultradian cycles, thereby uncoupling extracellular hormone fluctuations from appropriate receptor function at response elements. This alters RNA accumulation profiles dramatically. These findings suggest potentially important consequences of ultradian secretion. The transcriptional program induced by hormone pulses differs significantly from that generated by constant hormone treatment. Thus, treatment with synthetic glucocorticoids may not provide an accurate assessment of physiological hormone action. 

The article is dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the first Morgan’s book, «The Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity» in 1915. The book presented the program of Morgan’s genetic research. The necessity of this article stems from the fact that T.H. Morgan is a unique historical figure, which personifies the development of a new branch of biology, genetics, in the first decades of the 20th century. The works by Morgan and his disciples illustrate the relationships between genetics and other fields of biology. Historical analysis of the monograph sheds light to key points in the formation of genetics as a science in the early 20th century. Moreover, the activities of Morgan’s group is a prominent example of a scientific school, the first in genetics.
It is owing to that school, America gained the leadership in genetic research from Europe. Cytological analysis of chromosomal rearrangements and study of mutations played the key role in the formation of the chromosome theory of inheritance. By studying mutations in Drosophila, Morgan obtained an experimental proof of linkage of individual genes in a chromosome. Study of deviations in the linkage provided grounds for the discovery of crossover, which was a great stride forward. Construction of chromosome maps and investigation of chromosome rearrangements stem from Morgan’s school. When reading his Nobel lecture in 1934, Morgan presented not only the results of his group but also a long-range program of genetics development.