Gregor Mendel and his work have traditionally attracted well-deserved attention of scientific society. The purpose of this article is to study the background and prerequisites of Mendel’s formation as a personality and scientist, the motivation of his scientific interests and discoveries which marked a beginning to the emergency of genetics as a science. Comparative analysis of literature have pointed at the way of his life in childhood, father’s work and mastering fine methods of handling plants as highly motivational factors. Obviously, Mendel’s personality developed due to his natural gift, love of knowledge and passion for studying. He was greatly inspired by studying with the theorist of hybridization and selection Professor Franz Diebel. According to the author, studies at the university of Vienna and in particular Professor Franz Unger, a botanist and cytologist, played a key role in Mendel’s becoming a scientist and developing the idea of hereditary factors (Anlagen) transmitted to the subsequent generation by gametes. The article gives description of Mendel’s experiments and his interpretation of patterns revealed. A conclusion is made that the reproducibility of Mendel’s experiments using different objects and traits, confirms his research objectivity and makes his results invulnerable to criticism. Mechanisms providing realization of numerical patterns discovered by Mendel got clarified after establishing of their complete correspondence with structure and function of heredity system. In conclusion, main achievements of Mendel which formed the basis of genetics and stimulated the development of several branches of general biology are mentioned. 

Pea (Pisum sativum L.) is an important vegetable and forage crop capable of improving soils via symbiotic nitrogen fixation. It is of special importance in Russia as a crop adapted to high latitudes and an inexpensive source of plant protein. In addition, pea is the first genetical object used in famous G. Mendel’s experiments. The first translocation in the history of genetics was also found in pea. Pea generation time can be shortened to 35 days, which is comparable with Arabidopsis. However, small and hardly recognizable chromosomes hampered the development of pea cytogenetics, while recombination genetic maps remained inadequate until 1990s, when they were improved only with the aid of molecular methods. Two different notations for pea linkage groups and chromosomes as cytological objects still coexist. Recently, the whole toolbox of modern molecular methods of genetic analysis was applied to pea, including isozymes, RAPD-, SSR-, RFLP-, AFLP-, STS-, CAPS-, sCAPS-, and SNP-markers, as well as methods of reverse genetics including TILLING and virus-induced genomic silencing. Application of association mapping. Several transcriptome studies have been carried out in pea. Meanwhile, we await the completion of pea nuclear genome sequencing in 2016. For working out new molecular markers in pea, the synteny of its genome to the sequenced genome of Medicago truncatula is extensively used. Genetic transformation of pea is very difficult. Pea has been used as an experimental model for investigation of the following fundamental issues: the genetic control of symbiosis with nitrogen fixing bacteria, influence of variation in the histone H1 gene on the phenotype, mechanism of nuclear- cytoplasmic conflict in remote crosses, origin of B-chromosomes in plants, and genetic control of compound leaf morphology. 

The paper by the Augustinian friar Gregor Johann Mendel “Experiments on Plant Hybridization” laid the foundation of the new field of knowledge, genetics, 150 years ago. It claimed that any character was determined by two factors. On the one hand, the Mendelian idea of binary coding of a character was inspired by Christian Doppler, with whose department Mendel was contacting for seven years. On the other hand, the regularities discovered by Mendel confirmed the intuitive notion of the divine principle based on rational foundations. Pythagoras was the first to point to the spiritual grounds of being. The world had been created by the number, and the number is a nonmaterial and insensuous entity. All students of heredity before Mendel traced the fate of a character in a succession of generations. Instead, to unveil the heredity mechanism, Mendel traced the fates of two invisible factors that determined the character. Probably, the ideas of binary combinations and mathematical probabilistic variants arose from Mendel’s long meditation and an imaginary experiment. Experiments on pea crosses were undertaken just in order to test the idea of a set of invisible determinants. Methods borrowed from statistical physics allowed Mendel to decrypt the process occurring in experiments with the pea model: The fate of a character was determined by action of two invisible factors. 

Experimental genetic studies of Drosophila were initiated by T.H. Morgan in 1910, when he discovered the sex-linked white-eyed mutation, white. This discovery commenced the transformation of Mendel’s “hereditary factors” to more specific but no less enigmatic W.L. Johanssen’s “genes”. Owing to Drosophila’s biologic features, it became a universal eukaryotic model for genetic, embryological, morphological, physiological, molecular, and cellular studies. Actually, the history of discoveries done on Drosophila species reflects the course
of genetics development. That was Drosophila studies to lay foundation for genetic notions of the nature of genes, genetic linkage, mitotic and meiotic chromosome segregation, mechanisms governing mutagenesis and recombination, genetic instability, mobile genetic elements, regularities and genetics of individual development, and microevolutionary processes in populations. The paper considers steps and milestones of genetics development by examples of the American and Russian genetic schools. The American genetics was characterized by “reductionism”, whereas the Russian genetics was inclined to “cosmism”, where emphasis was placed on the understanding of macroevolutionary processes. Drosophila has become a test ground to try new genetic methods, and its studies contribute much to biomedical science. The paper outlines several top priority fields in modern Drosophila studies. 

The results of long-term studies on legume symbiogenetics and breeding are summarized by the example of pea Pisum sativum L. A collection of symbiotic mutants was developed by chemical and radiational mutagenesis of pea varieties and genetically characterized. Various sym genes were recognized. From the large set, supernodulating (proved to be recessive) and dominant hypernodulating types of symbiotic mutants were chosen for breeding programs. Varieties differed dramatically in hypernodulation degree. Aiming at nitrogen fixation intensification, accessions bearing recessive genes for supernodulation (nod4) and dominant genes for hypernodulation (Nod5) were selected. The recurrent method of symbiotic mutants utilization in pea breeding for nitrogen fixation intensification was developed. The best results were obtained by combining two sym genes in one pea genotype: the dominant hypernodulation gene Nod5 and the recessive supernodulation gene nod4. A set of recurrent lines tagged with both these genes was raised to use in breeding programs as donors of intense nitrogen fixation combined with good performance. In addition, they are good preceding crops. After their harvesting, soil accumulates large amounts of nitrogen-rich root and bacterial biomass. The nitrogen is preserved for years, whereas mineral nitrogen is rapidly washed out with precipitation. Endemic pea accessions originated from various regions can be successful starting material in breeding for nitrogen fixation intensification, accessions from Egypt and Syria having provided best results. Nodulation and nitrogen fixation intensities were assessed in seven cultivars derived from three promising pea lines raised at the Siberian Research Institute of Plant Breeding and Selection. 

Safflower is a minor crop, and its genetics is poorly known. Four types of safflower corolla color are recognized: red, orange, yellow, and white. As the information on color inheritance is incomplete and contradictory, we aimed to study the inheritance of yellow color in safflower. The research conducted in 2009–2013 involved 11 accessions with red, orange, yellow, and white corollae. Samples were obtained by self-pollination for several years. Their progenies by open and controlled pollination were genetically analyzed. Two emasculation techniques were used in artificial pollination: the Indian mass-emasculation technique with polythene bags and the washout pollen technique we’ve elaborated. The results were evaluated by the Chi-square test. They revealed several types of yellow color inheritance. Crosses of a yellow-corolla plant to a plant with another corolla color yielded yellow-corolla F1 progenies. Segregation of F2 produced all the four colors, the yellow color being the most abundant. However, when the parental plants had corolla colors other than yellow in some cases F2 contained fewer yellow-corolla plants, while other corolla colors were predominant. The dominant gene determining the yellow color is proposed to be designated as C for Chrome. The recessive allele of this gene permits the development of other corolla colors. 

Studies of the inheritance and and variability of chasmo- and cleistogamous types of cotton flower on the base of intraspecies hybridization of Gossypium barbadense L. are an urgent genetical task, whose applications involve plant breeding and seed industry. The purpose of our study was to determine the genetic control of this trait on the base of the regularity of alternative chasmo- and cleistogamous types of flowers in intraspecific hybrids of G. barbadense species. It is of theoretical and practical significance in the development of isogenic forms, lines, and varieties with the fully closed cleistogamous type of flowers, possessing important commercial traits. A pioneering method was elaborated for determining the genetic control of chasmo- and cleistogamous types of flowers in inrtaspecific hybridization of Gossypium barbadense L., which was a continuation of our studies on interspecific cotton hybridization. Two strategies were applied to the genetic analysis of hybrids: (1) paired reciprocal hybrids F1, F2 and (2) backcrossed hybrids Fb. On the grounds of these strategies, we determined the inheritance mode of flower types in reciprocal hybrids F1, which possessed
the c1cg1Cg2cg2 genotype with chasmogamous flowers without reciprocal difference. The classes segregated in F2 as follows: 1 (cg1cg1Cg2Cg2) : 2 (cg1cg1Cg2cg2) : 1 (cg1cg1cg2cg2), where cleistogamy was double recessive (This trait shows the complete dominance inheritance pattern.) Segregation into two phenotypic classes occurs in the 3:1 ratio, i.e., three plants with chasmogamous flowers per one cleistogamous. The segregation Fb is 1:1; i.e., 1 chasmogamous : 1 cleistogamous. Thus, cotton chasmogamy is inherited in F2 according
to the Mendelian law in a completely dominant manner: 3:1, which is proven by the Fb cross. 

In Western Siberia, intense flowering of Fragaria vesca occurs in the first ten days of June and fruiting takes place from the end of June till early July. During our expeditions investigating natural Fragaria vesca L. populations of Western Siberia in 2002–2013, we registered cases of reflowering, or repeated flowering in August-October. The paper concerns the genetic control of re-flowering in natural populations of Fragaria vesca. The study was conducted with accessions collected in the expeditions and seedlings grown from seeds taken in August-October from natural populations of woodland strawberry reflowering. Genetic analysis of seedlings obtained by self-pollination of collected accessions was also made. It involved 1486 seedlings from plants with seasonal fruiting (representing 32 Western Siberian populations) and 856 seedlings from 10 populations showing reflowering and refruiting. Genetic analysis of reflowering Fragaria vesca plants growing in natural conditions showed that they were usually homozygous for the dominant allele of seasonal fruiting. Reflowering in Fragaria vesca in Western Siberia is considered to be a provisional response of the genotype to certain growth conditions specific for a particular vegetation season. The only woodland strawberry population in the foothills of Kuznetsk Alatau displayed plants heterozygous for fruiting habit. Segregation in the progeny of self-fertilized plants from this population evidences monogenic control of day neutrality with a recessive type of inheritance. Its nature is similar to that in Alpine Fragaria vesca populations. 

Within ten years, the Kazakhstan-Siberian nursery net for spring common wheat improvement
(KASIB) working under the auspices of CIMMYT (Intenational Maize and Wheat Improvement Center) characterized accessions of five cultivar blocks with regard to the compositions of gliadin (1B/1R translocation), glutenin HMW and LMW subunits, and grain hardness. HMW glutenin compositions for 188 homogeneous variety samples are given in accordance with UPOV (Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants) regulations and 27, 28 and 29 features in tests for uniformity, distinctness, and stability. Most spring wheat cultivars possess the glutenin spectra 2* 7+9 5+10” (40 %), “2* 7+9 2+12” (up to 30 %), and “17+95+10” (8 %). The Kazakhstan varietal gene pool includes genotypes with a new subunit 4 + 10 on 1D in samples of Erythrospermum 55/94-01-20 and Phyton 41. Cultivar Iridost is noted as carrying the relatively rare allele 5,5 + 10 on chromosome 1D. This allele was previously identified in Tselinogradka, Tselinnaya 24, and Akmola 3 cultivars. The rare subunit 7*+ 8 is typically present in E-607 and E-757. The last three KASIB blocks (8-9; 10-11; 12-13) show higher levels of uniformity: up to 74–84 %. The 1BL.1RS wheat-rye translocation is more frequently identified in accessions by Siberian Scientific Research Institute of Agriculture and Eastern Kazakhstan Research Institute of Agriculture breeding in each KASIB block and also in all the accessions presented by the companies Kurgansemena and Agrosemkonsal and selected by the Fiton company. Varieties Altaiskaya 105, Kurganskaya 5, Lutescens 1300, Phyton 42, Lutescens 53/95-98-1, Lutescens 53/88-94-12, Lutescens 54; Lutescens 30-94, Erythrospermum 607, and Aktobe 1574 showed the whole range of variability in grain hardness (from middle soft to hard) under different growth conditions. 

Grey wheatgrass Agropyron glaucum (Desf. ex DC) Roem. & Schult is a valuable source of genes
for resistance to diseases, frost resistance, and salt tolerance. An unstable 76-chromosomal amphidiploid combining genomes A and B of common wheat variety Avrora, six chromosomes of genome D of the same variety, and a full set of Ag. glaucum (2n = 42) chromosomes was used as an intermediate to transfer the genetic material from the wild donor to the said wheat variety. A large set of wheat introgression lines differing in a variety of morphobiological characters was developed.
For effective employment of the developed lines in breeding, cytological and molecular-genetical analyses of the lines were conducted, and their pest resistance and grain technological properties were evaluated. We report the investigation of 25 common wheat introgression lines with genetic material from Ag. glaucum, not studied hitherto. All lines but D43 formed 21 bivalents in МI meiosis. In lines D3, D21, and D23, the genetic material of Ag. glaucum was present as a translocation segment. Lines D7, D43, and D49 carried substituted chromosomes and, presumably, translocations. One pair of wheat chromosomes was substituted in 18 lines. For the identification of translocations and substituted chromosomes, microsatellite analysis was done with markers specific to D genome chromosomes. The introgression touched all D genome chromosomes except 3D and 4D. The lines under the study differed in protein and gluten contents, gluten quality, and bread-making quality. Study of gliadin spectra revealed changes in the gliadin formula in 7 of 12 lines with reference to the recipient Avrora variety. Thus, the results obtained point to genetic diversity of investigated introgression lines and their value for common wheat breeding. 

Hybridization between hexaploid species of wheat (Triticum L.) and triticale (Ч Triticosecale Wittm.)
is used widely in genetic research and breeding when studying mutual introgressions of genetic material to original species. As far as the hexaploid triticale obtained in our Institute possessed a strong potential of morphogenesis, we decided to use it in crosses with bread wheat. During the process of morphogenesis in hybrid population of the second and third generations derived from the crosses between hexaploid triticale with different bread wheat cultivars (Opal and Chinese Spring) and variety (Triticum aestivum var. velutinum), plants with wheat, rye, intermediate, and triticale-like spike types were noted. Starting from the third generation, constant short-stemmed vaviloid branched spike plants were isolated among populations under study. Despite instability and numerous meiotic aberrations observed in the first generation of plants, including branched-spike ones, the subsequent progeny demonstrated meiotic and morphological stability. The chromosome composition of one of the lines (378/3SD) was characterized by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and genome in situ hybridization (GISH), and it was identified as a substitution line. Chromosomal identification of such lines will allow their use in genetic studies concerning specified traits, in particular, the vaviloid branched spike. 

The StY-genome group of Elymus species is of special interest, most of its species ranges extending to Russia from southern frontier territories, mainly from China. The ranges of Elymus pendulinus, E. ciliaris and E. amurensis within Russia overlap in the southern part of the Russian Far East only. Elymus ciliaris is considered by Russian taxonomists to be phylogenetically close to E. pendulinus, while hybridization of these species gave rise to the independent species E. amurensis. Moreover, in China, E. amurensis is recognized as a variety of E. ciliaris. Endosperm protein polymorphism was studied by SDS-electrophoresis for the purpose to reveal species specificity in E. pendulinus, E. ciliaris, and E. amurensis from a number of localities in the Primorskii Krai. Accessions of species from places of their joint occurrence were analyzed to detect identical polypeptide components which could have appeared due to genetic introgression. Nevertheless, both electrophoretic images visual analyses and construction the dendrograms of populations with various similarity coefficients revealed a high species specificity of E. ciliaris и E. pendulinus but no signs of introgression in spite of the fact that the two species often grow in common ecotopes and even form sterile hybrids. No indications of the origin of E. amurensis from the highly distinct species E. ciliaris and E. pendulinus were found either.
The necessity of biosystematic and experimental methods for confirmation of the origin and taxonomic rank of new and many recognized species in the genus Elymus is shown. 

The significance of an apple genetic collection and its use in the development of new adaptive apple cultivars meeting up-to-date requirements are investigated. Nevertheless, the genetic diversity of existing collections is shown to be still insufficiently used in breeding institutions. McIntosh, Jonathan, Wealthy, Golden Delicious, Melba, Antonovka Obyknovennaya, Ranetka Purpurovaya, and Papirovka are valuable parental varieties in apple breeding, used in Russia and worldwide. In spite of the availability of a large genetic collection, only 48 cultivars were used as initial parental forms when developing about 50 apple varieties (according to the All-Russia Research Institute of Fruit Crop Breeding). That makes up less than 7% of the gene pool of over 700 cultivars kept at the Institute. Among 10 most valuable sources of new varieties are McIntosh (12), scab immune Seyanetz 814 (9), Antonovka Obyknovennaya (7), Papirovka Tetraploid (11), etc. We recommend sources and donors for apple breeding for commercially valuable traits (winter hardiness, columnar tree type, precocity and high productivity, long fruit storability, high resistance and immunity to scab), as well as donors of diploid gametes for triploid cultivar breeding, sources and donors of high contents of sugars, titrated acids and biologically active substances (ascorbic acid and P-active substances) in fruits.
The necessity of selection and breeding of complex sources and donors possessing two and more valuable traits (immunity to scab and tetraploidy, immunity to scab and the columnar tree type, etc.) is discussed. 

Doubled haploids (DHs) production through androgenesis is a biotechnological method for genetic improvement of crops. Biotechnological DH line production offers advantages to plant breeders, including the possibility to obtain homozygous lines within a year in contrast to common inbreeding methods, which may take 6–12 years. The greatest success in androgenesis has been achieved in some varieties of rapeseed (Brassica napus L.). However, the efficiency of androgenesis in other Brassica species is still poor. Induction of microspore embryogenesis is usually induced by many factors such as conditions of donor plant growth, genotype, microspore developmental stage, culture medium composition, and culture conditions. The reprogramming of microspores from the gametophytic to the sporophytic habit of development depends on various stress factors. Certain pretreatments of microspores, such as high temperature and colchicine, can favor androgenesis in Brassica species. Plant regeneration from microspores can be improved by proper application of different growth regulators (ethylene, abscisic acid, and indole acetic acid). Optimal combinations of these factors are mandatory for efficient androgenesis. In this review, we summarize the experience of our colleagues in DH-technology in the Brassica genus. Attention is focused on some factors influencing the development of doubled haploid plants and their impact on enhancing the efficiency of androgenesis in Brassica species. 

Recent biomolecular studies tend to involve combinations of different methods and approaches that allow analyzing organisms on the genomic and proteomic levels, as well as on the level of metabolomics. However, in order to justify the use of the metabolomics techniques in plant breeding, it is important to perform comprehensive analysis of a broad range of species and varieties. In this study, we evaluated the contents of low-molecular-weight substances in seeds of different rapeseed cultivars by the gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) technique. For every metabolomic profile, we estimated 168 target substances, and 52 of them were unambiguously identified. These compounds included amino acids, organic and fatty acids, tocopherols, and phytosterols. In order to keep the data assay within the context of multivariate statistics, we used principal component analysis (PCA), partial least square discriminant analysis (PLS-DA), and partial least square regression (PLS-R). Subsequent analysis revealed a significant difference between the metabolomic profiles of the investigated rapeseed cultivars, with the primary
role of the amino acids and organic acids. Noticeably, the PLS-DA model showed 65% of the explained variance and, according to the Venetian blinds cross- validation test, 91.67 % of the accuracy. Thus, we demonstrate the effectiveness of the metabolomics approach to the varietal identification of seeds. This strategy can be further improved with a continuously updated database of the metabolomic profiles of different species and cultivars. Application of the PLS-DA method will allow comparison of the metabolites of unknown samples with the existing profiles and, subsequently, identification of new seed samples. 

The interpretation of a signal sent by the mtDNA cytb gene as a molecular marker in phylogenetic and population genetic research can be complicated by cumulative influence of parallel mutations, i.e., the entropy of nucleotide sequences. Such a phenomenon impedes differentiation among the effects of hybridization, natural polymorphisms, and artifacts imposed by pseudogenes. We analyzed possible limitations in the use of the mtDNA cytb gene as a molecular marker by the example of the Apodemus genus. For this purpose, the entropy of nucleotide sequences was calculated, and probable tracts of gene conversion were sought in samples of various Apodemus species from Tibet, Korea, south of Russian Primorye, and Western Europe. Many haplotypes were identified as containing tracts of gene conversion. The high level of nucleotide sequence variability was found in species from Tibet, particularly, in A. draco, presumably due to the influence of low effective sizes of populations on the speed of point mutation accumulation and also cytochrome b role in the adaptation to unfavorable environment. The effects of hypervariability in cytb nucleotide sequences of some samplings resulting in entropy growth imitating gene conversion when compared to other species of the genus were analyzed. Examples of possible pseudogene interference among published cytb sequences are provided. It is suggested that the strategy in the use of the mtDNA cytb gene in population genetics and phylogenetics should be adapted to the degree of the gene variability. Emphasis is placed on the necessity of close control over sequencing data. 

Malignant cell transformation is accompanied by two processes of DNA methylation changes: promoter hypermethylation of specific genes and hypomethylation of retrotransposons. The composition of circulating DNA (cirDNA) from plasma and cell-surface-bound circulating DNA (csb- cirDNA) was shown earlier to be altered in the blood of cancer patients due to accumulation of tumor- specific aberrantly methylated DNA fragments, which are currently considered valuable cancer markers. The present study compares LINE-1 retrotransposon methylation patterns in plasma cirDNA and csb- cirDNA from 21 untreated lung cancer patients (LC) and 23 healthy donors. Concentrations of methylated LINE-1 region 1 copies (LINE-1met) were assayed by real-time methylation-specific PCR. In order to normalize the LINE-1 methylation level, the LINE-1 region 2 concentration was evaluated, which was independent of the methylation status (LINE-1Ind). The LINE-1met concentration in csb-cirDNA tended to decrease (by a factor of 1.4) in blood from LC patients in comparison to healthy donors (Mann- Whitney test, P=0.16). The LINE-1Ind concentration in csb-cirDNA (methylation-independent) was found to be threefold lower in LC patients and fourfold lower in patients with adenocarcinoma than in healthy donors. That is why, along with the expected decrease in LINE-1met concentration in csb-cirDNA, we recorded an unexpected statistically significant increase of the LINE-1 methylation index determined as (LINE-1met/LINE-1Ind) due to the profound LINE-1Ind decrease. Plasma cirDNA demonstrated no difference in the LINE-1 methylation index (LINE-1met/LINE-1Ind) between LC patients and healthy donors (Mann-Whitney test, P = 0.40). The data obtained agree with our earlier results, which showed that csb-cirDNA was a highly informative material for lung cancer diagnostics. 

Aminoazo dyes and other hepatocarcinogenic substances inhibit glucocorticoid-mediated induction of adaptive enzymes, including tyrosine aminotransferase (TAT), in mouse and rat liver.
There is a specific relationship between the effect of a carcinogen on TAT induction and its liver carcinogenicity in animals. Presuming tumor development being initiated not directly by the chemicals employed but their metabolically activated derivatives, the question arises whether TAT induction is inhibited by carcinogen metabolites or by their parent compounds. The goal of this paper is to shed some light on the issue. Mouse strains differing in the sensitivity to both carcinogenic and antiglucocorticoid (TAT induction inhibitory) effects of the mouse-specific carcinogen ortho- aminoazotoluene (OAT) underwent a set of experimental procedures: ablation of gonadal and adrenal glands, administration of inhibitors (CoCl2, pentachlorophenol), inducers (3,4- benzopyrene, Aroclor 1254, 20-methylcholanthrene) of xenobiotic-metabolizing enzyme activities, and others. The results unequivocally confirm that glucocorticoid induction of TAT activity in mouse liver is inhibited by activated metabolite(s) of OAT rather than by its intact molecules. In contrast, nonspecific genotoxic agents such as cyclophosphamide and cisplatin exert no effect on TAT induction by glucocorticoids. The wide occurrence (practically in each TAT-expressing  hepatocyte) and rapidly reversible inhibition of enzyme induction by the carcinogen point to the epigenetic nature of this phenomenon.