Transgenic plants are often used in both fundamental and applied research. It is well known that transgene expression strongly depends on the genetic construct design. In particular, 5′-UTR is an important element, as it influences mRNA translation efficiency and the protein synthesis rate. The review considers 5′-UTR features controlling translation efficiency in plant cells and some useful translational enhancers.

The main classes of repetitive DNA sequences, including coding (rRNA genes) and non-coding sequences (tandem and dispersed repeats) are characterized. Emphasis is placed on their special role in the formation of the structural and functional organization of the genomes of higher plants and in the support of their higher genetic variation, as compared to animal genomes, at the levels of individual sequences and of the whole genome.

Alien chromatin introgression into the genome of common wheat Triticum aestivum L. is the most efficient way to enrich the gene pool of this crop. To improve the breeding value of wheat accessions, rye Secale cereale L is used as a donor of characters. Transfer of rye genetic material has certain specific features. The combination of the two cereal genomes in a single nucleus results in imbalance in all genetic systems. Fertility restoration in amphihaploids is the first step in the formation of introgression accessions. It is followed by the hybrid genome reorganization, which leads to cytological and genetic stability in the diploid progeny. In this paper, we present and analyze results that were obtained in the study of the two steps of wheat-rye hybrid genome reorganization: (1) breaching of F1 hybrid sterility (cytogenetic mechanisms of unreduced gamete formation) and (2) reorganization of wheat subgenomes during the introgression of single rye chromosomes.

Drought is one of the major environmental factors that limit crop growth and yield. Development of new wheat genotypes carrying introgressions from other cereal species is widely applied to improve the complex stability of bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). The aim of this study was estimation of the effect of foreign genetic material (derived from Aegilops speltoides, Ae. tauschii and T. timopheevii) on osmotic stress tolerance in wheat seedlings. Indirect evaluation of drought resistance by creating artificial shortage of moisture under laboratory conditions identified different degrees of the influence of foreign genetic material. In particular, it was shown that the presence of the T6BS· 6BL-6SL translocation from the Ae. speltoides genome in bread wheat might increase its drought resistance, whereas the presence of a T. timopheevii introgression in chromosome 2A, on the contrary, reduced the resistance of wheat to osmotic stress. By the example of translocation T5BS· 5BL-5SL, it was found that the same foreign fragment introgressed into different wheat genotypes could exert different effects on resistance to osmotic stress depending on the drought tolerance degree of the initial wheat genotype.

Androgenesis ability was studied in anther cultures of euplasmic lines of common wheat and alloplasmic recombinant lines (H. vulgare)-T. aestivum with 1RS.1BL and 7DL-7Ai translocations. The ability to produce androgenic structures and plantlet regeneration are suppressed in lines carrying both translocations. Alloplasmic recombinant lines (H. vulgare)-T. aestivum with 1RS.1BL and 7DL-7Ai translocations, as well as alloplasmic lines with 1RS.1BL translocation, are characterized by increased ability to create androgenic structures, including polyembryos, and plantlet regeneration as compared to euplasmic lines. The inducing reciprocal influence of barley cytoplasm and rye chromosome 1RS on the androgenesis ability of lines (H. vulgare)-T. aestivum with 1RS.1BL and 7DL-7Ai translocations is discussed. Double haploid lines were developed from androgenic plants with spontaneously doubled chromosome numbers and restored fertility. Of the lines carrying the translocations, the most promising with regard to the manifestation of commercially valuable traits and resistance to diseases were selected in order to utilize them in breeding programs.

Intergenomic chromosome pairing was analyzed in unique allohaploid hybrids, which had been produced through a process of somatic hybridization followed by a haploidization procedure (in vitro androgenesis). Two hybrid combinations were studied: (1) between cultivated potato S. tuberosum (dihaploid, 2n = 2x = 24, AA genome) and wild species S. etuberosum (2n = 2x = 24, EE genome), (2) between cultivated tomato S. lycopersicum (LL, 2n = 2x = 24) and wild species S. etuberosum (2n = 2x = 24, EE). Genome and chromosome composition of allohaploids were identified through FISH with chromosome specific BAC clones and GISH. Up to 7 intergenomic bivalents per cell were observed in allohaploids between S. tuberosum and S. etuberosum (AE); the chiasmata were distributed in the distal regions of long arms of each chromosome and in the short arms of chromosomes 3, 6, 11, 12. Rare bivalents (from 0 to 2) were observed in allohaploids between S. lycopersicum and S. etuberosum (LE); the chiasmata were distributed in the long arms of chromosome 4 and 6. The perspectives of proposed approach are discussed for application of somatic hybridization and chromosome engineering to study the potential of homeologous pairing and the strategy of introgression.

Four genetically independent bread wheat lines with altered spike morphology caused by development of supernumerary spikelets at rachis nodes were characterized by modern methods of karyotype analysis, Cbanding and FISH. Three lines carried rearrangements of group 2 chromosomes: substitution of chromosome 2D and deletions of 2D, terminal and interstitial. The deletion breakpoints were defined by microsatellite analysis. The deletions were co-localized on the genetic map with the MRS1 gene, whose mutation caused the development of clusters of supernumerary spikelets at rachis nodes. Evaluations of spike phenotypes of the line with the supernumerary spikelet trait and Chinese Spring deletion lines carrying deletions of chromosomes 2A, 2B, and 2D demonstrated that deletion of a group 2 chromosome might alter spike morphology, resulting in development of supernumerary spikelets at rachis nodes and changes in spike length and density.

Genetic diversity of T. aestivum/T. timopheevii introgression lines was studied with regard to microsatellite loci and resistance to fungal diseases. Genotyping of hybrid lines and parental common wheat cultivars for 143 SSR markers revealed 521 and 440 alleles, respectively, or 3,24/2,73 alleles per microsatellite locus on the average. Comparison of genetic diversity indices of individual chromosomes revealed the lowest diversity for SSR loci on chromosomes 4D and 5D and the highest (0,62–0,67), on 5B and 6A. Evaluation of SSR polymorphisms and indices H in the three genomes of introgression lines indicated that the chromosomes of genome B had higher rates than A or D (B > A > D) which was probably a result of alien introgression into these chromosomes. Comparison of the results of molecular and phytopathological tests allows us to conclude that despite the severe selection for resistance to leaf rust in early generations and a large number of generations of selfing, the genetic diversity of introgression lines on microsatellite loci is preserved, which is indicative of the stability of alien genetic material in the common wheat genome.

Combinations of alleles of the Vrn-A1, Vrn-B1, Vrn-D1, Ppd-D1, and Ppd-B1 genes were analyzed with allele-specific primers in 48 spring wheat varieties from different breeding centers in Siberia. Six haplotypes were identified for Vrn-1 genes, including two most abundant with two dominant genes Vrn-A1 and Vrn-B1 against the background of recessive Ppd-D1b genes, which cause sensitivity to photoperiod. Only one variety (Tulun 15) was found to bear the photoperiod-neutral Ppd-D1a allele, combined with the dominant Vrn-A1 and Vrn-B1 alleles. It showed the earliest ripening of all accessions examined. Within each haplotype, a considerable variability was found in growing duration, suggesting a strong influence of the “genetic background” on this trait. Nevertheless, the results can be used for marker-assisted selection of genotypes most appropriate for different growing conditions.

Parameters of spike productivity were evaluated in plants of populations F2 obtained by crossing the varieties Novosibirskaya 67, Saratovskaya 29, and Puza-4 with the Skle 123-09 line, characterized by the multifloret habit. Skle 123-09 differed significantly from the studied cultivars in spike density, but no significant differences were found in spike length or the number of spikelets per spike. Two-way analysis of variance in F2 hybrids showed that the «spike length» variability character was determined mainly by the genotypic environment and the interaction of the factors «genotype × environment». The variability of the character “number of spikelets” was determined mainly by environmental conditions. This was particularly true for cultivars Saratovskaya 29 and Puza-4, recommended for arid areas. The variability of the resulting «spike density» character was affected by environmental conditions, genotype, and the «genotype × environment» interaction. The examination of the F2 populations revealed plants with fan-shaped spikelets; high grain content, as in Skle 123-09; and the best performance of other spike traits. The selected plants will be used to fix the «multiple florets» character in the parental varieties.

Molecular analysis revealed polymorphism for the MD-Exp7 gene, controlling expansin biosynthesis, in wild Malus species. Eight allelic forms of the gene were identified, and four of them were unique. The regularities in the allele distribution in 37 genotypes were found to be in accordance with their systematic positions. The trait was found to be broadly diverse both among the sections of the genus and within a particular section. Variants of the gene were identified in representatives of one species.

Acid vacuolar invertase Pain-1 participates in the regulation of starch and sucrose contents in cells. This enzyme is also involved in plant response to abiotic stress. For the first time Pain-1 gene fragment (exon V – exon VII) polymorphism was determined in 19 potato varieties. A total of 25 SNPs were detected. A new SNP, С1895, was found in exon VII. Five of eight SNPs located in exons led to amino acid substitutions. Three of them were radical. It was shown that the conservative C-terminal domain contained three variable amino acids.

The intron located between the first and second nucleotide of the leucine tRNA anticodon is the only representative of group I introns in higher plants. In this paper, for the first time the intron sequence of the plastid trnL gene is described in 16 legume species, and putative secondary structures of the entire intron and some of its functional domains are reconstructed. It has been found that genera of the Fabaceae family, as well as species within a single genus, are highly diverse in this sequence. Single nucleotide polymorphisms have been found in sequences of the catalytic center, believed to be highly conserved.

Wheat accessions were genotyped with molecular markers linked to wheat leaf rust resistance genes Lr9, r10, Lr19,Lr24, Lr26, Lr34, and Lr37. They included 1920 wheat plants and 46 commercial varieties bred at the Lukyanenko Institute. Basically, the analyzed varieties had the inefficient gene Lr10, poorly effi cient Lr26 and Lr34, or their combinations. The highly effi cient genes Lr9 and Lr24 were not detected. The Lr19 gene, effective in the Krasnodar region, was identified in varieties Pallada and Yara. The resistance gene Lr37 was found in variety Morozko. Within a short time, F2 and F3 plants with introgression of genes Lr9, Lr19, Lr24, Lr37 were obtained. Accessions with combinations Lr24 + Lr37, Lr24 + Lr19, Lr24 + Lr9, Lr19 + Lr37, Lr37 + Lr9, Lr19 + Lr9 were identified. Seven plants with the combination of three genes Lr37 + Lr19 + Lr9 and one with Lr37 + Lr24 + Lr9 were selected.

Leaf rust resistance was estimated in 83 common wheat accessions from the collection of the Vavilov Institute carrying alien genetic material. Eight accessions with seedling resistance and 27 accessions with adult plant resistance were found. Analysis with molecular markers revealed genes highly and moderately efficient in Russia – Lr24, Lr39, Lr21, and Lr37 – and a rye translocation 1AL.1RS. The samples accessions effective Lr genes are promising donors in Russian breeding programs. Lines raised with the use of T. timopheevii were heterogeneous for resistance. No molecular markers of the Lr50 gene known for this species were detected there. These lines demand further examination and selection.

Net blotch of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), caused by Pyrenophora teres f. teres, and spot blotch, caused by Cochliobolus sativus, are the most widespread and harmful diseases in the geographic range of the crop. Barley breeding for resistance to these diseases should employ a large genetic diversity. The 11_11067 SNP marker was revealed on chromosome 6H position 58 cM in double haploid (DH) population A developed by crossing of the Ethiopian accession c-23874, highly resistant to P. teres f. teres, to the susceptible Pirkka cultivar. It was reliably (р < 0.05) associated with resistance to three P. teres f. teres isolates. In population B (Zernogradsky 813 (MR to C. sativus) × Ranniy 1 (MR to P. teres f. teres), 11 QTLs controlling resistance to 12 P. teres f. teres isolates were found on all barley chromosomes and 14 QTLs for resistance to 12 C. sativus isolates, on all chromosomes except for 4H. For both pathogens, the revealed QTLs were shown to be isolate-specific. The majority of the loci detected were mapped in the same intervals between SNP markers where QTLs controlling resistance to P. teres f. teres and C. sativus had been found by other scientists. Four novel QTLs controlling resistance to P. teres f. teres were found on chromosomes 1H, 4H, and 5H. Five novel QTLs associated with resistance to C. sativus were found on chromosomes 2Н, 3Н, 5Н, and 6Н in DH population B.

Gene networks controlling plant defense against pathogens are rather complex. They may involve hundreds of genes. Infection induces considerable changes at different levels: molecular-genetic, biochemical, physiological, and morphological. These changes manifest themselves locally (near the invasion site) or systemically. The reconstruction of particular gene networks responsible for defense against pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses is an important step in the elucidation of the underlying molecular mechanisms as well as for the development of new approaches to crop improvement. The transcription levels of genes involved in the defense mechanisms commonly increase in response to pathogen invasion. Thus, investigation of their promoters is important for detection of new transcriptional factors controlling their activity and for search for new genes involved in pathogen response. It seems desirable to employ pathogen-responsive promoters to make plant cultivars resistant to various pathogens by gene engineering techniques. In this paper, we present data on promoters of pathogen-responsive genes with experimentally verified transcription patterns annotated in the TGP (TransGene Promoters) database. TGP may be used as a source of information for both interpretation of transcriptomic data and design of gene engineering constructs to obtain agricultural plants with improved resistance against various pathogens.

The authors present their own and literature data on the genetic control of anthocyanin coloration in rye. The concept of the norm for traits of anthocyanin coloration of rye plants is formulated. The analysis of the variability of these traits in inbred lines of winter rye revealed variability in the expression of anthocyanin color in different organs of the plant, which is largely influenced by the environment. For this reason, genetic analysis was performed only for traits with stable manifestation. Six recessive genes vi1–vi6 were identified, whose homozygous state led to the absence of anthocyanin from the whole plant. Of them, only vi1 was localized and mapped on chromosome 7R. The dominant Vs gene for purple pericarp was mapped on chromosome 2R, and one of two complementary genes for red leaf auricle R1, on chromosome 5R. Data from the literature on the identification and localization of anthocyanin coloration genes in rye are discussed in connection with the prospects for further research in this direction.

The biosynthesis of flavonoid compounds is one of the best-studied metabolic pathways in plants. The researchers’ attention to the biochemical, physiological and genetic aspects of flavonoid biosynthesis is associated primarily with the wide range of their biological properties. In addition, the flavonoid biosynthesis gene system is an excellent genetic model. Owing to the development of molecular and genomic methods in recent years, considerable progress is made in the understanding of the molecular and genetic mechanisms underpinning flavonoid biosynthesis in bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). This article provides a brief overview of the results of research in the structural and functional organization of flavonoid biosynthesis genes in wheat and its relatives.

The phytohormone auxin is the key factor in plant morphogenesis. Being unevenly distributed in plant tissues, it forms gradients and concentration maxim а, according to which cells grow, divide, and differentiate. The family of PIN-FORMED (PIN) proteins, transmembrane transporters of auxin, play the key role in the formation of auxin gradients. The plant root is the most appropriate model for studying the regulation of morphogenesis, because of its relatively simple cellular organization. This review concerns the expression patterns of PIN transporters and their contribution to auxin distribution in the root of Arabidopsis. Mathematical models that prove the relationship between the expression pattern of PIN proteins and auxin distribution in the root meristem are discussed.

We analyzed the hexaploid wheat cultivars Saratovskaya 29, Novosibirskaya 67, Skala, Irtyshanka 10, and Tselinnaya 20 and their introgression lines with Triticum timofeevii Zhuk. to elucidate the correlation between dough rheological properties (dough strength) and the contents of overall protein, raw gluten, gliadin, glutenin. The ratio of glutenin and gliadin contents and their increment in the introgression lines in comparison with the parent cultivars were assessed. Dough strength was found to correlate significantly only with glutenin increase. This correlation can be utilized in breeding design.

It is difficult to reach seed uniformity in Fragaria × ananassa Duch. (2n = 8x = 56) because of the high ploidy level of this species and polysomic inheritance of characters, including reproductive ones, and, correspondingly, to raise varieties propagating by seeds. The present work demonstrates efficiency of line crossings for achieving uniformity within everbearing strawberry seed progeny. Examination of three progeny lines resulting from line crossings of everbearing garden strawberry testified uniformity of major biomorphological traits. The seedlings were capable to produce yield four to five months after germination, which allows harvesting berries in West Siberia in August, September, and, partially, in October.

The history of Norway spruce distribution in the East European plain is discussed with regard to the results of allele diversity survey of the mitochondrial Nad1 gene, which is maternally inherited, and the chloroplast trnT-trnF region, which is paternally inherited in spruce. The polymorphism of organelle DNAs was examined in 221 genotypes from 28 regions of the former USSR in geographical provenances. Alleles common for the northern Picea abies lineage were detected in accessions originated from the most regions investigated. The Nad1 allele typical for the southern lineage of P. abies was discovered just in spruces originated from Carpathians. The Nad1 allele typical for P. obovata was found in spruces from the Sverdlovsk (Urals) and Krasnoyarsk (Siberia) oblasts. Among the trees analyzed, some had chloroplast DNA sequences (trnT-trnF) assigned to P. abies, others carried cpDNA haplotypes fixed for P. obovata. Analysis of organelle DNA allows revealing the hybrid nature of spruces resulting from cross-pollination of different species.

The broad bean (Vicia faba L.) was among the founder crops of the Near East; nevertheless, its wild close relatives remain unknown. Presumably, its missing wild progenitor had a small range within the Levant and was associated with restricted habitats, so that it was domesticated entirely as a species. Its habitats are supposed to have been situated along floodplain/slope borders (“transeluvial-accumulative barriers”) providing favorable edaphic conditions. These restricted natural habitats of the broad bean could be foci of early cultivation activities, thus becoming nascent fields. It is hypothesized that the broad bean, a conspicuous plant with large seeds and restricted habitats, could be the Near Eastern “primer crop”, which provoked the first emergence of the idea and practice of plant cultivation and “invention” of the field.